Introduction
Constructivism
is a theory of knowledge (
epistemology
)
[1]
that argues that humans generate knowledge
and meaning
from an interaction between their experiences and their
ideas. During infancy, it is an interaction between their
experiences and their reflexes or behavior
-
patterns. Piaget
called these systems of knowledge
schemata
.
Constructivism
is a theory of knowledge (
epistemology
)
[1]
that argues that humans generate knowledge
and meaning
from an interaction between their experiences and their
ideas. During infancy, it is an interaction between their
experiences and their reflexes or behavior
-
patterns. Piaget
called these systems of knowledge
schemata
.
Task
Constructivist theoryFormalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed toJean Piaget, whoarticulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested thatthrough processes ofaccommodationandassimilation, individuals construct new knowledgefrom their experiences. When individuals assimilate, theyincorporate the new experience into analready existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals'experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as afailure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, maymisunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is thereforeunimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradicttheir internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit theirinternal representations. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframingone's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can beunderstood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectationthat the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but byaccommodating this new experience and reframingour model of the way the world works, welearn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.It is important to note that constructivism is not a particularpedagogy. In fact, constructivism is atheory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using theirexperiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. Inboth cases, the theory of constructivism suggests thatlearners construct knowledge out of theirexperiences.However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promoteactivelearning, or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a "discoverylearning") as an instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below).[2][3]While there is muchenthusiasm for Constructivism as an design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us itwould appear thatconstructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory thateither allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.(p.4)".[2]This isunfortunate because there is quite a bit of promise to the educational philosophy behindconstructivism, but constructivists seem to be having difficulties defining testable learningtheories. In part this is due to Piaget's distrust of empirical methods and reliance upon the clinicalmethod.Constructivist learning interventionThe nature of the learnerThe learner as a unique individualSocial constructivismviews each learner as auniqueindividual with unique needs andbackgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivismnot
only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actua
Process
e
is first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals (Bruning et al.,1999; M. Cole, 1991; Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social constructivists, the processof sharing individual perspectives-calledcollaborative elaboration(Meter & Stevens, 2000)-results in learners constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone (Greeno etal., 1996)Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learntodiscover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouragingguesswork andintuitive thinkingin learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman1996). In fact, for thesocial constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-existprior to our social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our ownactivities and that people, togetheras members of a society, invent the properties of the world.Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meaningsthrough the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge isthus a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat andFloden 1994). McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states thatlearning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development ofour behaviors that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning occurs whenindividuals are engaged in social activities.Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements inlearning bysaying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual developmentoccurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines ofdevelopment, converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on anintra-personal level, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by thechild and her/his culture.Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learnerA further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is thatthe instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt andWillard-Holt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective andrequires that the instructor’s culture, values and background become an essential part of theinterplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their versionof the truth with that of the instructor and fellow learners to get to a new, socially tested versionof truth (Kukla 2000). The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and thelearner (McMahon 1997). This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor andlearner. This entails that learners and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's
viewpoints and then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subj